Italian is one of the Romance languages that emerged from Vulgar Latin, but its development was quite complex and influenced by a wide range of linguistic and cultural factors.
Differences Between Literary and Vulgar Latin
During the Roman Empire, Latin was essentially a unified language of culture, administration, and science. However, there were two main forms of Latin: literary Latin, used by scholars, and Vulgar Latin, the spoken form used by ordinary people. Literary Latin was a written language with a rich grammatical structure and complex noun and verb inflections, whereas Vulgar Latin, used in everyday communication, was naturally simpler and more dynamic. This gradual simplification played a key role in the formation of the Romance languages.
Vulgar Latin exhibited numerous phonetic, morphological, and syntactic changes compared to its literary counterpart, forming the foundation for the later emergence of Romance languages. For example, instead of the six Latin grammatical cases, speakers increasingly relied on prepositions, leading to a simplification of the case system.
How People Began to Perceive the Difference Between Literary and Vulgar Latin
As early as the 2nd and 3rd centuries, the distinction between formal and everyday spoken Latin was increasingly recognized as significant. This difference is evident in the Appendix Probi (Figure 5), a document originally from the 5th century (with a surviving copy from the 8th century), which records correct Latin usage and warns against the "incorrect" vulgar form. This text reveals how linguistic changes were perceived negatively and provides insight into how Latin was gradually diverging from its classical form.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD and the collapse of a unified Roman administration, different regions began speaking distinct versions of Vulgar Latin. This process led to greater linguistic fragmentation, eventually giving rise to regional variants that evolved into independent Romance languages.
The Emergence of Volgare in Italy
By the 7th century, regional dialects in Italy were already diverse, influenced by Germanic languages, Arabic, and later French. Compared to other Romance languages, Italian was slower to distinguish itself and gain prominence. This delay was partly due to the lack of a strong political and cultural center that could facilitate its standardization. As a result, Italy remained linguistically fragmented for a long time, with a wide variety of dialects that differed significantly from one another, complicating the formation of a unified language.
In literary criticism, this phenomenon is known as ritardo italiano ("Italian delay"), referring to the fact that, unlike other regions, Italy saw fewer early examples of vernacular languages being used not only for practical purposes but also for literary expression. There is no clear consensus on why this was the case. One theory suggests that the strong similarity between Latin and early Italian made Latin more widely comprehensible to the general population, reducing the need for an immediate linguistic shift.
Phonetic Changes
Phonetic changes in Italian were a key factor in its development and helped distinguish it from other Romance languages. As early as the 4th and 5th centuries, various phonetic shifts occurred, likely influenced by local dialects and surrounding languages. However, evidence from as early as the 1st century AD (such as inscriptions from Pompeii) suggests that these changes were already being felt at that time. Some of the most significant phonetic changes include:
Morphological Changes
Morphological changes in Italian involved, among other things, the simplification of Latin noun inflection. While Latin had a complex case system and intricate verb forms, Italian gradually replaced cases with prepositions and simplified verb conjugations. This trend was not unique to Italian but was characteristic of all Romance languages.
Originally synthetic verb forms for the future tense and conditional mood were gradually replaced by periphrastic constructions, meaning combinations of auxiliary verbs with infinitives or other verb forms. The transition from synthetic to analytic structures is a widely observed tendency in modern languages (e.g., the increasing use of prepositions where case endings once indicated the syntactic function of nouns).
Influence of Other Languages
Italian was shaped by influences from various languages, including:
The Question of Language
The process of unification of the Italian language, described as "The Question of Language," will last for several centuries. The discussion will be addressed by important writers and scientists (Machiavelli and Bembo, for example), showing how the Italian language has its roots primarily in intellectual and literary activity. The main themes of the issue are those of finding a dialect that can have the strength and distribution to unify the entire peninsula under one language. At the same time, it must be researched which of the dialects is the most suitable for everyday spoken language, whether the most popular one or the one already used by the famous Florentine writers of the 14th century.
Following centuries of discussion, in 1612 the Accademia della Crusca finally published the first dictionary of the Italian language, inspired mainly by the ancient Tuscan-Florentine dialect used by Dante-Petrarca-Boccaccio. To this day, Italians still refer to the Accademia della Crusca when discussing Italian language and grammar. The final push toward the unification of the Italian language was given by Alessandro Manzoni with the publication of the book I promessi Sposi (The Betrothed) in 1827.
However, in 1861, when Italy was unified into a single state, only 2.5-10% of Italians understood and used Italian, while the rest of the population was still strongly tied to the popular dialect of their region or city. True linguistic unification occurred in the 20th century. Even today in Italy, dialect is still used instead of the official language as a means of expression, especially in colloquial and informal interactions, especially in rural areas of the peninsula.
The Development of Italian Orthography from Its Beginnings to the 16th Century
Italian orthography underwent significant development over the centuries, influenced by both historical and cultural changes in Italy. This evolution was strongly affected by Latin script, with different regions and dialects using their own writing conventions. From the Middle Ages to the 16th century, Italian script continued to change until a foundation for modern orthography was established.
Latin Orthography and Its Influence on Italian
After the fall of the Roman Empire and throughout the Middle Ages, Latin remained the primary language of culture, science, and the Church. The orthography of Latin was largely preserved in the early stages of Italian development, influencing the spelling of many words. The Latin alphabet, especially in manuscripts, had various letter variations that did not always accurately represent the phonetic inventory of Italian. Letters such as "v" and "u" were often used interchangeably, as were "i" and "j," which is evident in manuscripts from this period. These variations indicate a certain flexibility in writing conventions.
Various Characters in Manuscripts and Types of Script
In the early Middle Ages, several types of script were used. The earliest form was Carolingian minuscule, which set a high standard for manuscript writing and was relatively legible. Later, different variants emerged, such as Gothic script, which was popular in the Middle Ages but difficult to read and featured more complex letter forms. It should also be noted that before the invention of printing, in the era of manuscripts, scribes frequently used abbreviations to save expensive parchment. However, many of these abbreviations had multiple possible meanings (e.g., a crossed-out "p" could stand for either the syllable per or pro).
In the 15th century, with the advent of printing and the widespread distribution of printed books, humanist script began to be used, inspired by Renaissance-era scripts. This new type was significantly more readable and aesthetically pleasing than previous forms, contributing to the spread of standardized orthography.
Aldus Manutius’ Italic Script
Printing also played a crucial role in the development of Italian orthography. Aldus Manutius, an Italian printer and humanist, contributed to the dissemination of printed books in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Manutius is known for developing italic type (cursive), which became popular not only in Italy but throughout Europe. Originally designed for practical writing, italic script was more aesthetically pleasing, faster, and clearer than previous scripts, significantly influencing the formation of modern printed orthography.
The impact of these printing and script innovations, including Aldus Manutius’ italic type, is evident in the spread of Italian writing and spelling beyond Italy, contributing to the popularization of a unified orthography. This new form of script laid the foundation for the development and eventual standardization of modern Italian orthography.
Italian literature developed more slowly than in other Romance languages, with its full blossoming occurring only in the 13th century (known as the ritardo italiano). The beginnings of literature in volgare were strongly influenced by troubadour traditions from southern France, particularly through the Sicilian School. This literary school, active at the court of Emperor Frederick II, focused on love poetry, drawing from traditional themes of early medieval literature. The language of this poetry was Sicilian, which bore strong influences from Provençal and French dialects.
One of the challenges in studying these texts linguistically is the fact that they have survived mainly through manuscripts written by scribes from present-day Tuscany (e.g., Vaticano latino 3793, Figure 1). At the time, scribes and literati in general did not adhere strictly to the original wording of texts, often adapting them to their native language or dialect. This is the primary reason why we read the works of Sicilian School poets today in a language that closely resembles late 13th-century Tuscan.
At the same time, in central Italy—particularly in Umbria and western Tuscany—religious literature emerged, strongly influenced by the Franciscan movement. Saint Francis of Assisi is considered the first author whose texts have been preserved thanks to his followers. His poem Cantico delle Creature, which praises the beauty of the created world, is closely linked to his teachings. Other significant authors include Jacopone da Todi and Guittone d'Arezzo, who focused on religious laude.
In northern Italy, especially in the Veneto region, poetry influenced by the courtly ideals of the troubadours flourished. Many Provençal intellectuals and poets came to this area during the Crusades against the Cathars, bringing with them the influence of French and Occitan culture. In Lombardy (in its broader medieval sense), religious poetry also developed. The works of authors from this region are often characterized by visions of the afterlife, where the torments of hell and the joys of heaven take on highly realistic connotations. Among the key figures of this tradition was Bonvesin da la Riva, whose Libro delle Tre Scritture is considered fundamental. Another important author, Giacomino da Verona, may have influenced Dante Alighieri’s eschatological ideas.
Stilnovismo
Stilnovismo, also known as dolce stil novo, was a literary movement that emerged in the second half of the 13th century in Tuscany, particularly in Florence and Bologna. It was heavily influenced by Provençal troubadour poetry. The stilnovisti emphasized an idealized concept of love, viewing it as a path to spiritual refinement and enlightenment. For them, love was a pure and noble sentiment that elevated the soul.
One of the main representatives of this movement was Guido Guinizelli, whose poem Al cor gentil rempaira sempre amore is considered the manifesto of Stilnovismo. Other notable poets include Guido Cavalcanti, Dante Alighieri, and Cino da Pistoia. Dante’s Vita Nuova is one of the key texts of this literary movement. Stilnovismo had a significant impact on the further development of Italian literature and laid the groundwork for later Renaissance writing. This movement also contributed to the creation of a new poetic language and style that celebrated beauty and spiritual values.
Dante Alighieri
Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) is one of the most significant figures in medieval literature, best known for his masterpiece Divine Comedy (Commedia). This epic-allegorical work, divided into three parts (Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso), describes the poet’s journey through the afterlife.
One of the challenges associated with the Divine Comedy is the fact that no autograph manuscript survives, meaning the original text written by Dante himself has been lost. The manuscript tradition is very rich, with many variations and copies, leading to the creation of various critical editions aimed at reconstructing the most accurate version of the text.
Another crucial work by Dante is De vulgari eloquentia, which discusses the use of the vernacular (volgare) in literature. This treatise is essential for understanding the evolution of the Italian language and literature, as Dante argued for the dignity and literary use of the common people’s language, which was revolutionary for his time. (Figure 2, Dante Urbinate latino 365)
Giovanni Boccaccio
Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375) was a prominent writer and poet, considered the founder of Italian artistic prose. His most famous work, The Decameron, is a collection of 100 novellas told over ten days by ten people who have fled the plague in Florence in 1348. These stories often contain erotic and satirical elements and represent the pinnacle of Boccaccio’s literary achievement.
Boccaccio was also a significant humanist and a close collaborator of Francesco Petrarca, together with whom he laid the foundations of Renaissance humanism. His works, such as Elegia di Madonna Fiammetta and De mulieribus claris, influenced European literature and art.
Francesco Petrarca
Francesco Petrarca (1304–1374), a poet, scholar, and one of the key figures of humanism, emphasized the rediscovery of ancient culture and philosophy. He is best known for his poetry collection Canzoniere, which contains 366 poems (sonnets, canzoni, ballads) dedicated to Laura. His other important works include Trionfi, an allegorical poem depicting the triumphs of love, chastity, death, fame, time, and eternity.
Petrarca also wrote several important Latin works, such as Africa, an epic on the Second Punic War, and De vita solitaria, which praises the values of contemplation and solitude. Another crucial work is Secretum, a dialogue between Petrarch and Saint Augustine, reflecting his personal crisis and search for spiritual meaning.
Petrarca played a key role in the rediscovery and study of ancient texts. His collection of classical manuscripts and efforts to restore original texts had a profound impact on Renaissance humanism and philology. His contributions to literature and philosophy were not only extensive but also deeply influential, shaping generations of writers and thinkers after him. *(Figure 3, so-called Codice degli abbozzi, Vaticano latino 3195)
Humanism
Italian humanism was a cultural and intellectual movement that developed in the 14th and 15th centuries, focusing on the revival and study of classical antiquity. This movement greatly influenced literature, education, and science, with Latin once again playing a significant role as the language of scholarship and culture.
Key figures:
During this period, Italian gradually became the dominant language in literature and education, while Latin remained important in academic and religious circles. Humanists focused on studying classical texts in their original languages and critically analyzing them, thereby reviving ancient heritage and laying the intellectual foundation for the Renaissance.
The Renaissance and the Medici Court
The literary production of the Italian Renaissance, spanning the 14th to the 16th centuries, represented a golden age in which literature reflected newly emerging humanist ideals. Besides Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarca, many other significant writers left a lasting mark on cultural history.
The Medici court, particularly under Lorenzo de’ Medici, became a hub for literary activity. Authors such as Angelo Poliziano (Stanze per la Giostra) and Luigi Pulci (Morgante) flourished, blending medieval knightly traditions with Renaissance humor and secular themes.
The Chivalric Epic – From Boiardo to Ariosto
Matteo Maria Boiardo (Orlando Innamorato) and Ludovico Ariosto (Orlando Furioso) revitalized the chivalric epic, blending medieval traditions with Renaissance ideals, creating dynamic, psychologically rich narratives that remain central to literary history.
Influence
Italian has significantly influenced languages such as French, Spanish, English, and Portuguese. This influence extended not only to vocabulary but also to grammatical structures, with the most significant impact observed in literature, music, and science.
For example, in French and Spanish, many Italian words were adopted during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Words such as ballet, opera, camera, cappuccino, piano, and allegro originate from Italian. French literature was also strongly influenced by Italian authors, such as Boccaccio, whose Decameron inspired writers like François Rabelais and Clément Marot.
Influence in Music:
Italian became the language of European music. During the Baroque and Classical periods, many musical compositions, operas, and sacred songs were written in Italian, making it the lingua franca for musicians worldwide. Terms such as allegro, andante, adagio, forte, piano, and crescendo are part of musical terminology in many languages.
Influence in Fashion and Art:
Fashion and design in Italy, especially in Milan and Florence, have had and continue to have a massive international impact. Expressions such as eleganza, pasticceria, salone, and sarto are commonly used in many languages in the context of fashion trends, Italian boutiques, and artistic salons.
Influence in Gastronomy:
In the field of gastronomy, Italian has contributed countless words that are now part of all European languages. Examples include pasta, pizza, espresso, gelato, tiramisu, and cappuccino, which have become common in many countries without the need for translation.
Period of Greatest Influence:
The greatest influence of Italian on other languages was probably between the 14th and 17th centuries when Italy was the cultural and intellectual center of Europe. During this time, Italian literature, philosophy, and art served as models for other European nations. In the 19th century, Italian also became a language of scientific communication, particularly in fields such as mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, further contributing to its spread.
Present Day:
Today, Italian remains an important language in art, design, gastronomy, and music. Although its influence on other languages is no longer as dominant as in the past, it continues to play a key role in these fields, and its cultural heritage is considered invaluable.
This language has not only enriched the vocabulary of many nations but has also become a symbol of culture, beauty, and tradition, making its influence in Europe and worldwide enduring.
Italian is a language full of history, beauty and melody. Although it is an official language only in Italy, the canton of Ticino in Switzerland, San Marino and the Vatican, its influence can be seen all over the world, especially thanks to its rich cultural heritage and art.
Melodicity and pronunciation
Italian is known for its melodic pronunciation, which is considered one of the most beautiful in the world. Words in Italian often end with vowels, giving it a sing-songy and flowing sound. This feature is particularly noticeable in commonly used words such as ciao (hello) or amore (love), which are not only easy to pronounce but also have a pleasant sound.
Dialects and their diversity
Standard Italian is an official language based on a literary tradition. The spoken language, however, consists of a number of regional dialects which can vary considerably from one another. These dialects are so diverse that people from different parts of Italy often have difficulty understanding each other. While standard Italian is based on the Florentine dialect, many regions such as Sicily, Naples or Veneto speak dialects that are often very different. Even today, dialects play an important role in everyday communication and culture.
Italian linguistic history
Modern Italian is essentially a continuation of the Florentine dialect, which was standardised in the 14th century thanks to the works of Dante Alighieri, especially his Divine Comedy. Dante was not only a poet but also a great linguistic innovator whose language provided the basis for modern Italian. This language, which was used in literature at the time, became the basis for the Italian standard over the centuries. Interestingly, Italians today can read medieval texts, such as the works of Dante or Petrarch, with relative ease, because the language has not changed as much as languages in other countries since then.
Similarity to Latin
Italian is a language that has very strong historical links with Latin. In fact, after Sardinian, Italian is the second closest language to Latin in terms of grammar, vocabulary and phonetics. This similarity is evident in many words that have the same or very similar form in both languages.
Simplicity and logic
Italian grammar is quite regular and logical, which makes it easy to learn. The number of irregular verbs is significantly lower in Italian than in English or French. Pronunciation is mostly phonetic, meaning that words are pronounced as they are written, which is a great advantage for students.
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