Transformations of Norse Myths

COURSE SYLLABUS

Transformations of Norse Myths

This syllabus was developed and taught by Lucie Korecká at Charles University, Prague, during the summer term of 2025/2026.

Course description

For medieval Icelanders and Scandinavians, Norse myth was much more than just a relict of their pre-Christian past. It was a cultural heritage that continued to shape their collective identity for many centuries after they had accepted Christianity. At the same time, however, their perception and interpretation of the myths changed significantly – not only because they no longer believed in their religious truth, but also because the educated social elites, who were responsible for writing down the sagas and poems, were influenced by contemporary European learned culture – to a greater extent than is obvious at the first sight.

Medieval European learned texts served as a crucial starting point for the educated Christian Norsemen’s academic interest in the myths and legends of their ancestors. They inspired the Icelandic and Scandinavian authors to use already established learned frameworks for the interpretation of this traditional material – as in the case of the Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson, the most extensive medieval learned treatise on Norse mythology.

Latin and vernacular historiographies of other nations influenced the Christian Norsemen’s approaches to their heathen past, as well as to their mythical or legendary past, and provided models for meaningfully incorporating this past into the Christian concept of history, for instance through euhemerization of the heathen deities. The mythical and legendary past thus became central for the construction of “foundation myths”, narratives about a nation’s or society’s origins. Additionally, these historiographies served as a source of new, Christian-oriented “cultural myths”, such as stories about a nation’s conversion or narratives about important Christian monarchs. In the North, where Christianity was introduced later than in most other parts of Europe, such Christian “cultural myths” were crucial elements of the long process of social and cultural transformation that took place in the centuries following the conversion. Among the Old Norse literary sources, the best examples of these cultural tendencies are the historiographical compilation Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson or the early Icelandic historiographical works Íslendingabók and Landnámabók.

Foreign hagiographies written in Latin were brought to the North by learned clerics, and many of them were translated into the vernacular soon after the establishment of a literary culture in Iceland and Scandinavia. Subsequently, these texts and translations inspired the composition of hagiographies – or historiographies with strong hagiographic features – of Scandinavian monarchs and Icelandic bishops, which were important for the Norsemen’s sense of integration into the Christian world. This type of cultural influences can be seen for instance in the sagas of the Norwegian Christianizing kings Olaf Tryggvason and Saint Olaf Haraldsson, in the sagas of the Icelandic saintly bishops Þorlákr Þórhallsson and Jón Ögmundarson, or in Hungrvaka, a brief early history of the Skálholt bishopric.

The textual sources mentioned here constitute the basis of this course, which is focused on close reading of selected Old Norse literary texts in their cultural contexts – not just in terms of the immediate historical circumstances of their origin, but also of the broader cultural influences that transcended the borders of medieval European states and cultural regions. The objective of the course is to point out the international influences that shaped the Old Norse narratives in their extant written form. It will also be highlighted that medieval Icelanders and Scandinavians, despite their geographical peripherality, viewed themselves as members of the broader European Christian community and put an active effort into creating narratives that could reaffirm their position within it.

Learning outcomes

• the course will familiarize the students with the central genres of Old Norse prose and poetry with mythological subject matter, as well as some of the most important works of Old Norse historiography and hagiography; much emphasis is placed on the reading of primary texts (in translation)
• the course is intended to increase the students’ awareness of cultural exchange between a peripheral region, such as Iceland and Scandinavia, and the rest of medieval Europe
• the course should develop the students’ critical thinking about medieval literary sources: emphasis is placed on interpreting every text and its manuscripts in the historical, political, and cultural context of their origin
• the course will introduce various possible theoretical and methodological approaches to medieval textual sources, thus providing the students with a solid background for further study of medieval texts, for writing theses on medieval culture, etc.

 Course requirements

The course is primarily intended for students of literature, culture, or history; some basic previous knowledge of medieval or Old Norse culture is preferable. Knowledge of Old Norse language is not required; all primary texts should be provided in translation. References to the required primary texts in English translation are given below; if the course is taught in a language other than English, the teacher can provide the primary texts in that language if possible.

The course is adaptable to different levels of education (undergraduate, graduate) and specialization (students of medieval studies vs. students of more general fields of cultural studies).

1. A) If the course is intended for less advanced or less specialized students, the secondary literature can be used by the teacher as a basis for preparing a lecture that sums up the central elements of the theme. The lecture should be followed by a discussion with students about the primary text(s); the reading of secondary literature can be optional for the students. The grade should be determined by the student’s active participation in the discussions, in combination with a short written assignment or oral discussion with the teacher on one of the topics of the course.
2. B) If the course is intended for more advanced or specialized students, the secondary literature can be assigned as mandatory reading and presented by students in front of the class or in groups. This should be followed by a discussion about the primary text(s). The grade should be determined by the student’s active participation in the presentations and the discussions, in combination with a longer written essay on one of the topics of the course.
   

COURSE SCHEDULE

Week 1       Introduction

- an outline of the themes and objectives of the course (see Course Description)

- the cultural and historical context of Old Norse literature with mythological subject matter:

- a long tradition of interest in myth in oral tradition and skaldic poetry

- close connections between the early Icelandic Church and the secular elite

- a high rate of education and literary activity among the Icelandic secular elite

- Icelandic and Scandinavian vellum manuscripts: preservation, research, examples

- a brief overview of the genres of Old Norse literature: Eddic poetry, skaldic poetry, historiography, learned treatises, sagas and their subgenres

Secondary literature:

Lindow, John. “Cultures in Contact.” In: Old Norse Myths, Literature and Society. Ed. Margaret Clunies Ross. University Press of Southern Denmark, 2003, 89–109.

Clunies Ross, Margaret. “The Conservation and Reinterpretation of Myth in Medieval Icelandic Writings.” In: Old Icelandic Literature and Society. Ed. Margaret Clunies Ross. Cambridge University Press, 2000, 116–139.

Lethbridge, Emily. “Manuscripts and Textual Culture.” In: The Cambridge History of Old Norse-Icelandic Literature. Eds. Heather O’Donoghue, Eleanor Parker. Cambridge University Press, 2024, 33–49.

Week 2       Eddic poetry

- Eddic poetry is the most authentic extant written source of Norse mythology, but:

- the dating of the poems and their parts is complicated

- the original contexts in which the poetry was performed are unknown

- the poems in their extant written form are inevitably influenced by medieval Christian culture and worldview

- the main manuscript, Codex Regius: date, composition, content, structure

- an overview of the mythological poems in Codex Regius, their subject matter and themes

+ how the editorial work in the manuscript affects the perception of the poems

- Hávamál – theories of its origin: it is obviously the work of a medieval editor who put together parts of poems that had probably existed separately in the oral tradition

- the possible foreign learned influences have been disputed, but it is interesting to look into this scholarly debate in the context of the evolving perceptions of Old Norse literary sources

- discussion: the possible social relevance of Hávamál in pre-Christian and Christian times

Primary text:

Hávamál (Sayings of the High One). In: The Poetic Edda. Translated with an introduction and notes by Carolyne Larrington. Revised edition. Oxford University Press, 2014, 13–35.

Secondary literature:

Clunies Ross, Margaret. “The Transmission and Preservation of Eddic Poetry.” In: A Handbook to Eddic Poetry: Myths and Legends of Early Scandinavia. Eds. Carolyne Larrington, Judy Quinn, Brittany Schorn. Cambridge University Press, 2016, 12–32.

McKinnell, John. “The Evolution of Hávamál.” In: Essays on Eddic Poetry. John McKinnell, eds. Donata Kick, John D. Shafer. University of Toronto Press, 2014, 59–95.

Week 3       Snorri Sturluson’s Prose Edda

- the historical context of the work’s origin, the author’s life

- the declared purpose of the Prose Edda as a handbook of skaldic poetry
vs. the likely more complex meanings and cultural functions of a comprehensive interpretation of mythology

- the presentation of mythology from a Christian learned perspective: euhemerism

- the development of euhemerism in ancient and medieval culture,
the most significant European learned works featuring this approach to heathen mythology

- the influence of euhemerism on Old Norse texts before Snorri’s Prose Edda

- discussion: euhemerism and the interpretation of Norse myth in the selected parts of the Prose Edda; the likely cultural relevance of the Prose Edda in the medieval North beyond its function as a handbook of skaldic poetry

Primary texts:

The Prose Edda – Prologue. In: Snorri Sturluson, Edda. Translated and edited by Anthony Faulkes. Dent, 1995, 1–5.

The Prose Edda – Gylfaginning (The Tricking of Gylfi), chs. 1–2. In: Snorri Sturluson, Edda, 1995, 7–8.

The Prose Edda – Skáldskaparmál: Epilogue. In: Snorri Sturluson, Edda, 1995, 64–66.

Secondary literature:

Clunies Ross, Margaret. “Snorri Sturluson and the Construction of Norse Mythography.” In: Writing Down the Myths. Ed. Joseph Falaky Nagy. Brepols, 2013, 201–221.

Hobson, Jacob. “Euhemerism and the Veiling of History in Early Scandinavian Literature.” The Journal of English and Germanic Philology 116.1 (2017), 24–44.

Week 4       Scandinavian foundation myth: Ynglinga saga

- mythical prehistory in Old Norse historiography before Heimskringla: Ari Þorgilsson’s genealogy in Íslendingabók; euhemerized gods in Historia Norwegie, Skjöldunga saga, etc.

- Heimskringla: origin, historical context

- unlike other compilations of kings’ sagas from the same time (Morkinskinna, Fagrskinna), Heimskringla contains a section dealing with mythical prehistory: Ynglinga saga

- the likely sources of Ynglinga saga: Ynglingatal (does not contain mythological material!), other skaldic poems, Eddic poetry, older prose works

- similarities and differences between the mythological narrative in Ynglinga saga and the Prose Edda

- how the mythological material is modified in Ynglinga saga to fit the historiographic mode

- discussion: the possible functions and meanings of mythical prehistory in medieval historiography

Primary text:

Ynglinga saga, chs. 1–10. In: Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla. Volume I. Translated by Alison Finlay and Anthony Faulkes. Viking Society for Northern Research, 2016, 6–14.

Secondary literature:

Lassen, Annette. Odin’s Ways: A Guide to the Pagan God in the Medieval World. Chapter 13: “Odin in Ynglinga saga.” Routledge, 2022, 149–168.

Lindow, John. “Myth Read as History: Odin in Snorri Sturluson’s Ynglinga Saga.” In: Myth. A New Symposium. Eds. Gregory Allen Schrempp, William F. Hansen. Indiana University Press, 2002, 107–123.

Week 5       Myth and heathenism in the sagas of Olaf Tryggvason

- historical context: Olaf Tryggvason’s life, Christianizing efforts, political opposition

- the different versions of sagas about Olaf Tryggvason

- Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta: origin, manuscripts

- Rögnvalds þáttr ok Rauðs: Olaf Tryggvason’s opposition to heathens; they are eventually persuaded to convert + a scene depicting King Olaf’s actual physical defeat of Þórr
= the Christian king’s victory over heathenism, and Þórr specifically, on different levels

- the episode of the encounter with Þórr and the giants: Olaf Tryggvason replaces Þórr in his characteristic role as the protector of people from giants; parallels between this episode and the story of Þórr fighting Geirrøðr = the Christian king takes the heathen god’s place in the order of the world

Primary texts:

Rögnvalds þáttr ok Rauðs = Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta, chs. 145–146, 148–150, 155. In: Saga of King Olaf Tryggwason who Reigned over Norway a.d. 995 to a.d. 1000. Translated by John Sephton. Nutt, 1895, 197–203, 204–209, 221–222.

The Prose Edda – Skáldskaparmál, ch. 18 (Þórr fighting Geirrøðr). In: Snorri Sturluson, Edda. Translated and edited by Anthony Faulkes. Dent, 1995, 81–83.

Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta, ch. 213 (the encounter with Þórr and the giants). In: Saga of King Olaf Tryggwason who Reigned over Norway a.d. 995 to a.d. 1000. Translated by John Sephton. Nutt, 1895, 332–336.

Secondary literature:

Grønlie, Siân. “Þáttr and Saga. The Long and the Short of Óláfr Tryggvason.” Viking and Medieval Scandinavia 9 (2013), 19–36.

Kaplan, Merrill. “Out-Thoring Thor in the Longest Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason: Akkerisfrakki, Rauðr inn rammi, and Hit Rauða Skegg.” The Journal of English and Germanic Philology 107.4 (2008), 472–489.

Week 6       Myth, heathenism, and conversion in skaldic poetry

- the close connections between mythology and skaldic poetry: kennings and allusions derived from mythological narratives are prominent even in poems dealing with non-mythological subject matter

- the general development of mythological allusions in skaldic poetry: frequent mythological kennings in pre-Christian poetry; a significant reduction of such kennings after the conversion of the North in the early eleventh century; a partial return to mythological allusions later, in combination with Christian allusions

- Hallfreðr Óttarsson’s ‘conversion verses’: possible interpretations of the stanzas and their prose context

- elements of heathen myth in kennings and allusions in skaldic poetry from Christian times – Þorfinnsdrápa by Arnórr jarlaskáld Þórðarson: historical context, analysis, interpretation

Primary texts:

Hallfreðar saga vandræðaskálds (The saga of Hallfred the Troublesome Poet), translated by Diana Whaley, chs. 5–6. In: The Complete Sagas of Icelanders. Volume I. Ed. Viðar Hreinsson. Leifur Eiríksson Publishing, 1997, 232–239.

Arnórr jarlaskáld Þórðarson, Þorfinnsdrápa, edited by Diana Whaley. In: Poetry from the Kings’ Sagas 2: From c. 1035 to c. 1300 [Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages 2]. Ed. Kari Ellen Gade. Brepols, 2009, 229–260.

Secondary literature:

Whaley, Diana. “The ‘Conversion Verses’ in Hallfredar saga. Authentic Voice of a Reluctant Christian?” In: Old Norse Myths, Literature and Society. Ed. Margaret Clunies Ross. University Press of Southern Denmark, 2003, 234–257.

Goeres, Erin Michelle. “The Many Conversions of Hallfreðr vandræðaskáld.” Viking and Medieval Scandinavia 7 (2011), 45–62.

Edwards, Diana. “Christian and Pagan References in Eleventh-Century Norse Poetry: The Case of Arnórr Jarlaskáld.” Saga-Book 21 (1982–1983), 34–53.

Week 7       Christian cultural myths: Norway

- Olaf Haraldsson: historical context, his rule, Christianizing efforts, political conflicts

- the beginnings of Saint Olaf’s cult, its cultural significance and literary traces

- the development of Olaf Haraldsson’s portrayal in different sagas, with a focus on the cultural myth of Olaf as Norway’s national saint

- discussion: Heimskringla’s emphasis on secular analyses of political dynamics and its portrayal of Olaf Haraldsson as a warrior king vs. the Christian cultural myth of Saint Olaf

Primary text:

Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla, Óláfs saga helga, chs. 223–228 (the battle of Stiklarstaðir); chs. 243–246 (Olaf’s sanctity and miracles). In: Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla, Volume II, translated by Alison Finlay and Anthony Faulkes. Viking Society for Northern Research, 2014, 251–257, 269–274.

Secondary literature:

Bagge, Sverre. “Warrior, King and Saint: The Medieval Histories about St. Óláfr Haraldsson.” Journal of English and Germanic Philology 109.3 (2010), 281–321.

Phelpstead, Carl. “In Honour of St Óláfr. The Miracle Stories in Snorri Sturluson’s Óláfs saga helga.” Saga-Book 25 (1998–2001), 292–306.

Week 8       Demythologizing myths

- medieval theories presenting heathen gods as demonic or devilish entities

- demonized gods in the sagas of Norway’s Christianizing kings: Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar and Óláfs saga helga

- discussion: Heimskringla, Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar, ch. 64 – how does this episode contribute to the portrayal of the king as an excellent Christian monarch?

- demonized or ridiculed gods in late medieval texts: Sörla þáttr

- discussion: how does Sörla þáttr distort the traditional story of the battle of the Hjaðningar? What were the possible meanings of this grotesque tale in the context of Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar in Flateyjarbók?

Primary texts:

Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla, Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar, ch. 64 (Odin in disguise). In: Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla, Volume I, translated by Alison Finlay and Anthony Faulkes. Viking Society for Northern Research, 2016, 195.

The Prose Edda – Skáldskaparmál, ch. 50 (the battle of the Hjaðningar). In: Snorri Sturluson, Edda. Translated and edited by Anthony Faulkes. Dent, 1995, 122–123.

Sörla þáttr (The Tale of Sorli). In: Sagas of Imagination: A Medieval Icelandic Reader. Translated by Ben Waggoner. Troth, 2018, 55–67.

Secondary literature:

Lassen, Annette. Odin’s Ways: A Guide to the Pagan God in the Medieval World. Chapter 9: “Odin in Kings’ Sagas (konungasögur).” Routledge, 2022, 83–94.

Rowe, Elizabeth Ashman. “Sörla þáttr: The Literary Adaptation of Myth and Legend.” Saga-Book 26 (2002), 38–66.

Quinn, Judy. “The End of a Fantasy: Sörla þáttr and the Rewriting of the Revivification Myth.” In: The Fantastic in Old Norse/Icelandic Literature. Eds. John McKinnell, David Ashurst, Donata Kick. Centre for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2006, vol. II, 808–816.

Week 9      The foundation myth of Iceland: The settlement

- historical context: the likely motivations for emigration to Iceland, international contact (some settlers arriving via the British Isles etc.), the functioning of early Icelandic society

- the need for constructing a collective identity: the settlers largely shared the same language and culture but had different backgrounds; living in Iceland did not automatically lead to a collective identity as ‘Icelanders’

- Íslendingabók, the oldest text recording the history of Iceland, can be viewed as a “foundation myth” that establishes the collective identity of Icelanders, while also anchoring it in the history of the world

Primary text:

Íslendingabók, chs. 1–6. In: Íslendingabók; Kristni saga. The Book of Icelanders; The Story of the Conversion. Translated by Siân Grønlie. Viking Society for Northern Research, 2006, 3–7.

Secondary literature:

Lindow, John. “Íslendingabók and Myth.” Scandinavian Studies 69 (1997), 454–464.

Hermann, Pernille. “Íslendingabók and History.” In: Reflections on Old Norse Myths. Eds. Pernille Hermann, Jens Peter Schjødt, Rasmus Tranum Kristensen. Brepols, 2007, 17–32.

Hermann, Pernille. “Spatial and Temporal Perspectives in Íslendingabók: Historiography and Social Structures.” Viking and Medieval Scandinavia 1 (2005), 73–89.

Week 10       The foundation myth of Iceland: The conversion

- historical context: the background of Iceland’s conversion, international influences, political relationships

- Íslendingabók presents the conversion as a strikingly pragmatic political decision; Landnámabók, instead of a unified narrative, offers glimpses into elements of Christianity that existed in Iceland even before the formal conversion

Primary texts:

Íslendingabók, ch. 7. In: Íslendingabók; Kristni saga. The Book of Icelanders; The Story of the Conversion. Translated by Siân Grønlie. Viking Society for Northern Research, 2006, 7–9.

Landnámabók, chs. 1 (Irish Christians), 15 (Örlygr Hrappsson), 24 (Ásólfr), 97 (Auðr), 320 (Ketill the Foolish), 399 (Christian settlers). In: The Book of Settlements, Landnámabók. Translated by Hermann Pálsson and Paul Edwards. University of Manitoba Press, 2006 (reprint), 15, 23–24, 26, 51–52, 123, 147.

Secondary literature:

Sverrir Jakobsson. “Conversion and Cultural Memory in Medieval Iceland.” Church History 88.1 (2019), 1–26.

Grønlie, Siân. “Conversion Narrative and Christian Identity: How Christianity Came to Iceland.” Medium Aevum 86 (2017), 123–146.

Week 11       Christian cultural myths: Iceland

- historical context: the development of ecclesiastical institutions in Iceland, the establishment of the bishoprics, the origin, education, and activities of the early bishops

- Icelandic ecclesiastical historiography (Hungrvaka): the bishops as bearers of collective Christian identity; the narrative helped Icelanders overcome their peripherality within the Christian world

- Icelandic hagiography: the bishops Þorlákr and Jón as saints – the early texts were derived from foreign hagiography but show clear signs of a specifically Icelandic cultural background

Primary texts:

Hungrvaka, ch. 4 (Gizurr Ísleifsson). In: Bishops in Early Iceland. Translated by Theodore M. Andersson. Viking Society for Northern Research, 2021, 10–14.

Þorláks saga, chs. 20–23, 71–83. In: The Saga of Bishop Thorlak. Translated by Ármann Jakobsson and David Clark. Viking Society for Northern Research, 2013, 23–24, 29–32.

Secondary literature:

Wellendorf, Jonas. “Whetting the Appetite for a Vernacular Literature: The Icelandic Hungrvaka.” In: Historical Narratives and Christian Identity on a European Periphery. Early History Writing in Northern, East-Central, and Eastern Europe (c.1070–1200). Ed. Ildar Garipzanov. Brepols, 2011, 123–142.

Ásdís Egilsdóttir. “The Beginnings of Local Hagiography in Iceland. The Lives of Bishops Þorlákr and Jón.” In: The Making of Christian Myths in the Periphery of Latin Christendom  c. 1000–1300. Ed. Lars Boje Mortensen. Museum Tusculanum Press, 2006, 121–134.

Whaley, Diana. “Miracles in the Sagas of Bishops: Icelandic Variations on an International Theme.” Collegium Medievale 7 (1994): 155–184.

Week 12       Myth and heathenism in the Sagas of Icelanders

- accounts of heathen worship in the sagas cannot be regarded as a reliable depiction of historical reality, but they show how Christian medieval Icelanders imagined, interpreted, and evaluated this element of their past

- Hrafnkels saga Freysgoða: heathen religion as a literary motif, pre-Christian ethics and social norms as a literary theme

- discussion: How does heathen religion influence the overall ethos of Hrafnkels saga Freysgoða? Can we detect an inherent Christian moral framework behind the story taking place in pre-Christian times?

Primary text:

Hrafnkels saga Freysgoða (The Saga of Hrafnkel Frey’s Godi), translated by Terry Gunnell, chs. 1–6; 11–13; 15–16. In: The Complete Sagas of Icelanders. Volume V. Ed. Viðar Hreinsson. Leifur Eiríksson Publishing, 1997, 261–267, 273–276, 279–281.

Secondary literature:

Andersson, Theodore M. “Ethics and Politics in Hrafnkels saga.” Scandinavian Studies 60 (1988), 291–309.

Wezel, Lars van. “Mythic Elements in Hrafnkels saga Freysgoða: Prolonged Echoes and Mythological Overlays.” In: Old Norse Myths, Literature & Society. Proceedings of the 11th International Saga Conference 2–7 July 2000. Eds. Geraldine Barnes, Margaret Clunies Ross. University of Sydney, Centre for Medieval Studies, 2000, 541–555.

Select general bibliography

The Pre-Christian Religions of the North: History and Structures.
Eds. Jens Peter Schjødt, John Lindow, Anders Andrén. Brepols, 2020 (4 vols.).

A Handbook to Eddic Poetry: Myths and Legends of Early Scandinavia.
Eds. Carolyne Larrington, Judy Quinn, Brittany Schorn. Cambridge University Press, 2016.

The Poetic Edda: Essays on Old Norse Mythology.
Eds. Paul Acker, Carolyne Larrington. Routledge, 2002.

Old Norse Myths, Literature and Society.
Ed. Margaret Clunies Ross. University Press of Southern Denmark, 2003.